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| Iceland Mountain & Mist (photo by V.A. McMillan, October 2023) |
Today, I will share an article initially written to be submitted to the Canadian Journal of Emergency Management (CJEM). It was a very valuable experience, especially as my scholastic phase was coming to an end; to experience writing, submitting, editing, and waiting for the article to be reviewed and either accepted or not. Unfortunately, for my first attempt, my article did not achieve the required standard to be published in CJEM. While, I would have been honoured to be published on the first try; it was going through the process to be published that was a very valuable experience. One day in the future, when I have the time on my hands, I will craft future articles and hopefully, I will get published. Thankfully, I have my blogs to publish my works to share with others.
I have made a couple edits to the submitted draft article. However, even these edits would have been unlikely to have changed the selection process, but they will make this post more complete. Enjoy.
Bridging Gaps – Encouraging Citizen Participation in Requesting Disaster
Resilient Structures that Meet FEMA, IBHS, ICLR, & IBC Recommendations
V. Andrew McMillan
Justice Institute of
British Columbia
For
Canadian Journal of
Emergency Management
Due Date: January
2023
Bridging Gaps –
Encouraging Citizen Participation in Requesting Disaster Resilient Structures
that Meet Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), Insurance Institute for Business
and Home Safety (IBHS), Institute for Catastrophic Loss Reduction (ICLR), &
Insurance Bureau of Canada (IBC) Recommendations
The quintessential question in home structures has always been why don’t
homeowners, building owners, and residential renters request structures that
are designed and constructed disaster resilient? As end-users of these
accommodation structures, should they not have a voice to demand structures
that do not fail when disaster strikes? Many emergency management practitioners
and academics are familiar with the engineered solutions from organizations
like the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), the Insurance Institute
for Business and Home Safety (IBHS), the Institute for Catastrophic Loss
Reduction (ICLR), and the Insurance Bureau of Canada (IBC). This paper will contribute
to the greater discussion of bridging structural disaster resilient housing
solutions for “disaster proofing” housing.
Defining the Problem
With increasing severity and frequency of disaster events (United
Nations, 2015), the need for structural disaster resiliency should be self-evident.
Four of the seven targets identified on UN DRR website (https://www.undrr.org/implementing-sendai-framework/what-sendai-framework)
are: reduce disaster mortality, reduce the number of impacted persons, reduce
direct economic loss, and reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and
basic services. All these targets are positively impacted if disaster resilient
structures were the norm, rather than the exception. If the structures where
people live, work, or learn are not destroyed by disaster events, fewer people
would be injured or killed, recovery time from disasters would be reduced, and
economic loss would be minimized.
FEMA expressed concern that the transfer of knowledge, like solutions to
disaster resilient structures, are trapped in research and agency silos and not
reaching all audiences (FEMA, 2018)). In addition, agencies supported by the
insurance industry, may be missing the opportunity to practice preventative strategies
when solutions for designing and constructing resilient structures are not known
by home or building owners. The key is to include all stakeholders in defining
the problem, for without input from all impacted parties there might be gaps in
the solutions devised. See Figure 1 for a Venn diagram of the
interconnectedness of stakeholders and the location of the solution zone.
 |
| Figure 1 Stakeholders & Systems |
Disasters of the greatest impact to resilient housing structures result
from a ‘quadruple threat’ created by wildfires, floods, earthquakes, and severe
wind events (McMillan, 2022). The priority is to develop disaster resilient
structures that are specifically designed, constructed, and operated to defeat a
quadruple threat’s impact on the end-user, as this will ensure a higher
survival rate for people and their homes when disaster strikes their community.
Solutions
The solutions required to design, construct, and operate disaster
resilient homes and other structures in the quadruple threat environment (wildfires,
floods, earthquakes, and wind events) span multiple sources (McMillan, 2022). IBHS,
ICLR, and IBC share solutions to multiple specific threat vectors developed
from their individual research labs. Other sources, like FireSmart (Canada) and
FireWise (USA) are focused on wildfire mitigation tactics homeowners can employ
to minimize the impacts caused by wildfires. FireSmart targets individual
owners, while Firewise targets entire neighbourhoods and communities. The Federal Alliance
for Safe Homes (FLASH) targets the end-user and have developed a buyer’s guide
for resilient homes to positively influence buying habits (2021). Other
findings can be summed up for the roofing system, wall and floor system, foundation
system and the water management (drainage) system. Solutions for the roofing
system are most numerous as the roof is one of the critical systems of a
disaster-proofed structure. The hip-styled roof profile enhances aerodynamics
and ensures wind resistance (FEMA, 2013; Ginger et al., 2021). A steep pitched
roof, 3/12 for water drainage, 4/12 for snow shedding, and 6/12 for hurricane
resistance, is recommended for water and wind events (Deltec, 2020; FEMA,
2011). Fireproofed roofs require construction with non-combustible materials
while using lightweight material can provide some protection from injuries from
earthquakes (Colorado Springs Fire Department (CSFD), 2022; Syphard et al.,
2017; ICLR, 2016). Universally, the use of complex roof designs, including skylights,
is strongly discouraged as they can be the weakest component of a roofing
system to the quadruple threat of fire, water, quakes, and wind disaster
elements (FEMA, 2006).
Moving from the roofing system, the wall and floor system are
substantially strengthened when continuous loading is achieved from roof to
foundation (Deltec, 2020; FEMA, 2011). Achieving this requires using hurricane
straps and hangers to connect trusses to the walls, connecting floor joist
hangers to beams, and bolting sill plates to the concrete foundation (Deltec,
2020). Both fire and hurricane shutters rated appropriately can contribute to
defending a structure from disaster by covering openings, while preventing firebrands
and embers from infiltrating (FEMA, 2013; ICLR 2012/2018). Exterior siding should
be constructed from non-combustible, impact resistant materials to offer
maximum protection from heat or flame and wind hurled projectiles (FEMA, 2021,
Quarles et al., 2010).
The structural finding for the foundation system focuses mainly on
earthquake and flood resilience. The addition of rubber crumb from recycled
automotive tires to the concrete poured for footings and foundation can increase
the foundation’s capacity to absorb motion (Chiaro et al., 2019). Similarly,
structures built in the flood plain would greatly benefit from foundation
systems that exclude the use of a basement (Boughton et al., 2017).
Alternatively, the use of permanent elevated foundation or amphibious
foundations, to get homes above the planned flood level, offer options for
structures built in hurricane country (English et al., 2021; FEMA, 2011; Piatek
& Wojnowska-Heciak, 2020).
Finally, the water management system incorporates ideas to get water
from the roof and dispersed away from the foundation or footings, as well as to
prevent backup of sewage into the structure. This includes keeping roof gutters
and downspouts free and clear of debris to prevent water backup inundating the
structure in unplanned locations (IBC, 2016). Water falling from the sky or
flowing overland are not the only flooding hazards to prepare for. When urban
storm water systems are shared with wastewater systems, the opportunity for
extreme back pressure is increased during flooding events. The homeowner has a
couple of options to combat this threat. First is to ensure a properly sized
and operational backflow valve is installed between the home’s sewer line and
the city’s sewer system (ICLR, n.d.). This will prevent sewage from being
forced into the lowest levels of a home, as the valve only allows movement in
one direction, away from the home. The next item is to install a proper sized
and functioning sump pump in the lowest level of the structure (IBC, 2016). The
one caveat is to ensure the discharge from the sump pump is not re-entering the
structure in another location.
Figure 2 depicts over three dozen solutions that can be adopted at the
design stage to improve structural disaster resilience and many of these
solutions can be adopted and retrofitted into existing structures to enhance
their structural disaster resiliency.
 |
| Figure 2 Infographic -- Solutions (See Appendix for Details) |
While some solutions such as fire and wind mitigation solutions are
universally beneficial, the infographic is colour-coded to identify the
different threats solutions work to mitigate. Thus, solutions in red mitigates
fire risk, solutions in blue mitigate water emergencies, solutions in brown mitigate
earthquake damage, and solutions in grey mitigate wind events. Readers can
assess and determine which solutions is most relevant to combat hazard threat most
common to their location. To make an informed decision, the reader or end-user
must be aware of the available strategies to increase structural disaster
resiliency, which is the goal of the infographic – collecting and sharing as
many solutions as practical.
An uninformed end-user will continue to accept whatever options are
available on the market. To modify this purchasing behaviour to one that
demands disaster resilient structures will require open dialogue, education,
and factual, objective information. Unfortunately, marketing theory suggests
that purchases are often influenced heavily by emotional factors. Therefore, it
is highly recommended those with marketing expertise must be invited to the
discussion of disaster-resilient home structures. While important to ensure
building back better after disasters, but more importantly, building homes that
can mitigate damage from disaster events. Thereby, increasing the community’s structural
disaster resiliency will greatly aid in reducing fatalities, and those negatively
impacted by disasters caused by the quadruple threat, including infrastructure
and economic losses.
References
Boughton, G.N.,
Falck, D.J., & Henderson, D.J. (2017). Tool to evaluate the resilience of
buildings to severe wind events. In H. Hao & C. Zhang (Eds.), Mechanics
of structures and materials: Advancements and challenges (pp. 1887-1892).
Taylor & Francis Group.
Chiaro, G., Palermo, A., Granello, G.,
Hernandez, E., Tasalloti, A., Stratford, C., & Banasiak, L.J. (2019). Enhancing
the resilience of low-rise buildings: A New Zealand perspective. Society
for Earthquake and Civil Engineering Dynamics. https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/17930
Colorado Springs Fire Department (CFSD).
(2022). Ignition resistant construction design manual. The City of
Colorado Springs. https://www.coswildfireready.org/codes-and-standards#rFblSt
Deltec Homes. (2020, 29 November). Anatomy
of hurricane resistant home [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1Q_iAOSn8uM
English, E.C., Chen, M., Zarins, R., Patange, P., &
Wiser, J.C. (2021). Building resilience through flood risk reduction: The
benefits of amphibious foundation retrofits to heritage structures. International
Journal Architectural Heritage, 15:7, 976-984. https://doi.org/10.1080/15583058.2019.1695154
Federal
Alliance for Safe Homes (FLASH). (2021). Buyer’s guide to resilient homes –
How to strengthen your home against natural disasters. https://buyersguidetoresilienthomes.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/9-7-21-Buyers-Guide-to-Resilient-Homes-Final.pdf
Federal
Emergency Management Agency. (2006). FEMA 232: Homebuilders’ guide to
earthquake resistant design and construction. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-07/fema_232_homebuilders-guide-to-earthquake-resistant-design_6-2006.pdf
Federal
Emergency Management Agency. (2011). FEMA P-55 Vol. II: Coastal construction
manual – Principles and practices of planning, siting, designing, constructing,
and maintaining residential buildings in coastal areas (4th ed.). https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/risk-management/building-science/publications?name=%22P-55%2C+Coastal+Construction+Manual%3A+Principles+and+Practices+of+Planning%2C+Siting%2C+Designing%2C+Constructing%2C+and+Maintaining+Resi%22
Federal
Emergency Management Agency. (2013). Mitigation ideas – A resource for
reducing risk to natural hazards. https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-06/fema-mitigation-ideas_02-13-2013.pdf
Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2018). A proposed
research agenda for the emergency management higher education community. https://training.fema.gov/hiedu/docs/latest/2018_fema_research_agenda_final-508%20(march%202018).pdf
Federal
Emergency Management Agency. (2021). FEMA P-361: Safe rooms for tornadoes
and hurricanes – Guidance for community and residential safe rooms (4th
ed.). https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_safe-rooms-for-tornadoes-and-hurricanes_p-361.pdf
Ginger, J.,
Parackall, K., Henderson, D., Wehner, M., Ryu, H., & Edwards, M. (2021). Improving
the resilience of existing housing to severe wind events – Final project report.
Cyclone Testing Station, James Cook University. https://www.preventionweb.net/files/76921_improvingtheresilienceofexistinghou.pdf
Institute for
Catastrophic Loss Reduction. (n.d.). Focus on backwater valves.
Retrieved on, 09 June 2022, from https://www.iclr.org/wp-content/uploads/PDFS/focus-on-backwater-valves.pdf
Institute for
Catastrophic Loss Reduction. (2012/2018). Protect your home from severe wind.
https://www.iclr.org/wp-content/uploads/PDFS/ICLR_Severe-wind_2018.pdf
Institute for
Catastrophic Loss Reduction. (2016). ICLR’s QuakeSmart program – Protect
your home from earthquakes. https://www.iclr.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/ICLR_Earthquakes_2016.pdf
Insurance Bureau of Canada. (2016). Water damage – Are
you protected? http://assets.ibc.ca/Documents/Brochures/Water-Damage-on-the-Rise.pdf
Insurance
Institute for Business and Home Safety. (2011, 25 April). IBHS Research
Center ember storm test highlights [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IvbNOPSYyss
McMillan, V.A. (2022). Houses of
straw, sticks, and bricks: Increasing structural disaster resiliency to
wildfires, floods, earthquakes, wind events, and the big bad wolf [Unpublished
capstone research project]. Justice Institute of British Columbia.
Piatek, L., & Wojnowska-Heciak, M.
(2020). Multicase study comparison of different types of flood-resilient
buildings (Elevated, amphibious, and floating) at the Vistula River in Warsaw,
Poland. Sustainability, 12(22):9725. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12229725
Quarles, S.L.,
Valachovic, Y., Nakamura, G.M, Nader, G.A., & De LaSaux, M.J. (2010). Home
survival in wildfire-prone areas: Building materials and design considerations.
Agriculture and Natural Resources, Publication 8393. https://anrcatalog.ucanr.edu/pdf/8393.pdf
Syphard, A.D.,
Brennan, T.J., & Keeley, J.E. (2017). The importance of building
construction materials relative to other factors affecting structure survival
during wildfire. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 21(2017),
140-147. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2016.11.011
United Nations.
(2015, 23 June). Resolution 69/283. Sendai framework for disaster risk
reduction 2015-2030. https://www.preventionweb.net/files/resolutions/N1516716.pdf
Appendix
Thank you for reading this post.
Here are the links to other school projects I have posted on my blogs:
Research Poster:
https://thegoodplanblog.blogspot.com/2023/08/increasing-structural-disaster.html
Literature Review from 2019
https://mtnmanblog.blogspot.com/2023/08/beyond-three-little-pigs-creating_29.html
Literature Review from 2022
https://mtnmanblog.blogspot.com/2023/09/houses-of-straw-sticks-bricks.html
Research Proposal from 2022
https://mtnmanblog.blogspot.com/2023/10/the-research-proposal-for-houses-of.html
Capstone Research Project 2022
https://mtnmanblog.blogspot.com/2023/11/capstone-research-project-houses-of.html
Keep studying the world around you!!
V.A.M.
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